The Biopsychosocial Model Health And Social Care Essay

The Biopsychosocial Model Health And Social Care Essay In the preceding paragraphs many theoretical models were put forward, but it is now desirable to introduce a holistic model of causation, one that is more naturalistic than the simple linear reductionist models (Borrell-Carrià ³ et al., 2004). A comprehensive literature search showed that the most common and widely accepted holistic framework for treatment and rehabilitation is the biopsychosocial model. The popularity of this model can be seen by the frequency of its occurrence in online sources. A preliminary assessment of the biopsychosocial model was conducted using the Medline database, using the term biopsychosocial in the topics field. It is well recognised that use of the term biopsychosocial does not necessarily indicate an adoption of the biopsychosocial model, but at a minimum, it does reflect a recognition of the perspective (Suls Rothman, 2004). Figure 1.5: Frequency of citation of the term biopsychosocial using the Medline database. 4.1 The Biopsychosocial Model One of the famous landmarks articles, published almost thirty years ago by Engle (1977), questioned the biomedical interventions used in both psychiatry and medicine, and warned of a crisis in the biomedical paradigm (Alonso, 2004). Engle (1977) argued that a true medical approach should consider: (1) the patient; (2) the healthcare system; (3) the social context of the patients life; and (4) the psychological context (Mrdjenovich et al., 2004; Pereira Smith, 2005). The main proposition of the biopsychosocial model is that treatment interventions should be an interlinked system covering multiple dimensions (i.e. diagnostic and causative variables), taking into account biological, social, psychological and macro (e.g. socioeconomic status, cultural, ethnic) issues (Figure 1.6) (Burton et al., 2008). Any defect in one part of the system will affect another part of the system (Keefe et al., 2002). For instance, deterioration of a patient condition (biological effect) can negatively aff ect patients` emotional states increasing stress and anxiety level (psychological effect) affecting his/ her ability to work or perform his/her daily routine activities (social effect), which will then, subsequently, increase pain and/or disability levels (Keefe et al., 2002). Figure 1.6: A pictorial illustration of the biopsychosocial model. Adapted from Finlay (2009). The biopsychosocial model accentuate the importance of interacting and understanding the patient as a unique individual taking onto consideration their belief system in a moderate way that neither concentrate on the biomedical aspects or psychosocial aspects but rather illustrate their relationship together (Jones et al., 2002). In comparison between the biopsychosocial model and the earlier discussed models, it can be seen that the biopsychosocial model posits a much complex, multidimensional and broader approach of clinical care (Hadjistavropoulos Craig, 2004). Engles new paradigm has often been seen as a radical departure for medicine (Salmon Hall, 2003, p.1972). However, Lambert et al. (1997) stated that although the biopsychosocial model is a new approach, it is still conservative. This assessment was based on several perspectives proposed by the model. First, by underlying the need for good clinical decisions to respond to the eccentricities of each individual patient, it re-affirms the patients role, self identity and professional independence (Armstrong, 2002; Salmon Hall, 2003). Secondly, the model extends the responsibility of medical care to go beyond biological complications and encompass non-medical treatments as well (Baer, 1989). Physicians are required to connect with their patients in a relationship that involves not only the patients complaints and symptoms, but also their personalities and psychosocial lives (Salmon Hall, 2003). Conversely, patients are expected to be prepared to respond to the physicians and bring about the required changes in their lives to prevent and/or manage their illness (Salmon Hall, 2003). However, one of the issues that has been discussed in the literature is whether the concepts of the doctor-patient relationship and patient-centredness can affect and threaten the doctors authority. However, if the requirements for patient-centredness and a doctor-patient relationship are applied in a moderate and professional way, they do not threaten either the doctors authority or their responsibility, especially since physicians maintain their authority by virtue of their specialist knowledge and their responsibility for an accurate diagnosis and appropriate treatment (Salmon Hall, 2003). Taking on the considerations mentioned in this section lead to a perceived need for a study to determine the current methods followed in managing lower limb injuries (either in elective or emergency cases) and whether the biopsychosocial model is a better approach of treatment. 4.1.1 To what extent have the medical establishment and different research fields adopted the biopsychosocial model? The biopsychosocial model has been widely adopted and promoted in different domains, including medical schools, major medical organisations, social work departments, public health, counselling, and some fields of psychology (Kaplan Coogan, 2005). For example, the WHOs International Classification of Functioning, Disability and Health (ICF), which is a global framework of disability and rehabilitation, is based on the biopsychosocial model (WHO, 2001). Dowrick et al. (1996) conducted a study to explore whether the biopsychosocial model is based on rhetoric or reality. A semi-structured postal questionnaire was sent to 494 principal general practitioners. The questionnaire sought the practitioners views about what they believed to be relevant and appropriate to a practitioners skills and knowledge in general medical practice, and investigated whether these views are consistent with the biopsychosocial model. Only 41% (207) of the sample responded to the questionnaire, which is considered to be a low response rate (Church et al., 2001). The results showed that general practitioners embrace the view that physicians should incorporate a biopsychological model, rather than a biopsychosocial model, in their general medical practice. However, the results cannot be generalised because the study was conducted exclusively on members of a specific organisation. Therefore, the results can only be only applied to the specific population describ ed in the study. Similarly, Alonso (2004) also investigated the extent to which the biopsychosocial concept has been adopted by medical researchers. Using the Medline database, Alonso examined published articles in the period 1978-1982 (period a) and the period 1996-2000 (period b). Period a was selected because it covers the first five years since Engels conceptualised his new model, and the second period (period b) was determined by the date of Alonsos study (covering the five years before the study). The findings of the previous study showed that the conceptualisation of health in medical research, as characterised in articles written within the past two decades, has not changed. In other words, physicians are still reluctant to incorporate the biopsychosocial model, and often focus solely on traditional methods of treatment. Other studies (Dowrick et al., 1996; Cohen et al., 2000; Alonso, 2004; Kaplan Coogan, 2005) also concur with the findings of Alonsos original study, and conclude that the bi opsychosocial model has not been fully integrated into actual medical practice. Conversely, in an evaluation of published articles between the years 1977-1987 and 1988-1998, Hwu et al. (2001) found a considerable spread of medical research articles that did include social and psychological aspects in their definitions of health and medical care. In addition, a literature search also shows that several behavioural, medical and psychological phenomena have adopted the biopsychosocial concept (Kaplan Coogan, 2005), in areas such as schizophrenia (Kotsiubinskii, 2002; Schwartz, 2000), chronic fatigue (Johnson, 1998), antisocial behaviour (Dodge Petit, 2003), gastrointestinal illness (Drossman,1998), spinal cord injury (Mathew et al., 2001), and pain management (Truchon, 2001; Covic et al., 2003). Clearly, there are conflicting findings in the existing literature regarding the extent to which the biopsychosocial model has been integrated into the medical domain, indicating a need for future research. 4.1.2 Application of the biopsychosocial model in rehabilitation Several authors have argued that there is a considerable gap between the introduction of a new or revised model and the application of the proposed model in clinical practice (Linton, 1998; Muncey, 2000; Jones et al., 2002). The challenging factors surrounding changes in clinical practice have been reviewed by Muncey (2000), two of which are associated with physicians decision-making skills and knowledge. In addition, physicians reluctance, in some cases, to integrate new models into their clinical practice should also be taken into consideration (Silagy, 1998; Jones et al., 2002). Furthermore, because the current medical literature is often introduced at a basic scientific level, it is complicated for non-researchers to understand and transfer new models and theories to clinical settings (Jones et al., 2002). Jones et al. (2002) stated that in order to achieve successful application of a new pattern of behaviour and practice thinking, two elements are required. These are reflective, critical clinical reasoning (i.e. the decision-making process), and a suitable organization of knowledge in which the new model can be implemented. The significance of the biopsychosocial model is based on its capability to show the multitude of interactions between its elements (Jones et al., 2002). in addition, every individual element can then be further explored. However, this means that physicians need to further develop their clinical practice skills in terms of patient assessment and management, either physically or in terms of other factors that contribute to their patient`s illness (Jones et al., 2002). One of the elements that should be considered in the application of the biopsychosocial model is diagnostic reasoning, which mainly depends on the application of the scientific paradigm (or the empirico-analytical model) for decision-making and validation. This form of reasoning attempts to identify and test hypotheses relating to the nature of psychological and physical impairments and their functional disabilities (Jones et al., 2002). Narrative reasoning is another form of reasoning which is used to understand the patients own experience with their pain and illness (Mattingly, 1994; Jones et al., 2002). However, although this sounds like a simple method, in fact it is far more challenging than simply listening to patients own stories (Jones et al., 2002). Finally, it is essential to highlight the fact that the biopsychosocial approach is not only concerned with curing pathological defects, but also with helping people to regain their normal life activities (Burton et al., 2008). In addition, it is acknowledged that there may be a certain amount of reluctance regarding the adoption of the biopsychosocial model because of the hurdles in the way of its clinical application (Burton et al., 2008). Changing the way in which injuries are managed in clinical settings will require further investigation, since little attention has been paid towards identifying the current methods that are used to manage lower limb injuries (either in emergency or elective settings) and whether the biopsychosocial model is a better approach in managing such injuries. From the findings and the studies presented in this literature review, it can be concluded and hypothesised that enough clinical evidence exists to show that the biopsychosocial model is a better approach to managing lower limb injuries. On the other hand, the literature does not answer the basic question to whether the surgery is elective or emergency make a difference to the patient experience after injury, which necessitate the need for further investigate. 5.0 Conclusion Little attention has been given to the patients experience after lower limb surgery for example, comparing and contrasting the experiences of patients who have had elective or emergency surgeries, exploring physical, social and psychological aspects, and looking at whether methods of treatment and follow-ups are applied differently between elective and emergency surgeries. In addition, although various studies had focused on how the physical, social and psychological factors interlink together, no previous study has investigated the outcome of the application of the biopsychosocial model in managing patients after lower limb surgery as a result of injury, compared to those who were treated using other treatment approaches. Therefore, to address these issues, this study aims to explore and report the patients experience of clinical care of lower limb injury after surgery, comparing and contrasting the experiences of patients who have had elective or emergency surgeries, and investigating whether the biopsychosocial model is a better treatment approach for the management of lower limb injuries than other approaches. Thus, the current study is based on the following research questions: 6.0 Research question Primary research question: What are the differences between patients experiences and clinical approaches after elective lower limb surgery as a result of injury, compared with patients experiences after emergency lower limb surgery as a result of injury? Secondary research question: If a difference exists among patients experiences and clinical approaches between elective and emergency lower limb surgeries as a result of injury, how does this difference related to the current care pathway including the biopsychosocial model? 6.1 Aims and objectives The aim of this study is to develop a better understanding of patients experiences after a lower limb injury that is severe enough to necessitate surgery, and to compare medical services (after lower limb surgery) provided in emergency settings vs. elective settings. In addition, the study aims to investigate the efficiency of current methods of treatment and compare them with treatment methods derived from a biopsychosocial approach. Understanding the experience of lower limb injury from the patients perspective is essential for providing guidelines for appropriate and efficient medical services, and in the prevention of future complications for the patient. In addition, such an understanding will form a reference for future research studies. The objectives of this study are to explore and report: The difference in patients experiences of medical services for lower limb surgery provided in emergency settings and elective settings. Whether the current biomedical approach to managing lower limb injuries is efficient enough from the patients perspective. The importance of psychosocial factors for a patient with lower limb injury. The importance of implementing treatment methods derived from a biopsychosocial model approach. 6.2 Statement of null hypotheses The research is based on three null hypotheses: The primary null hypothesis states that there will be no difference in patients experiences in emergency and elective surgery settings for patients with lower limb injuries. The secondary null hypothesis states that there will be no difference between elective and emergency lower limb surgeries as a result of injury, and hence it does not relate to the current care pathway including the biopsychosocial model.

Accountable Professional Practitioner

Accountable Professional Practitioner Advanced Profession Practice This essay will address the issue of becoming an accountable professional practitioner. I will discuss the issues around accountable professional practice as I see them and explore what these mean for my nursing practice, I will then conclude with the main points I have raised and implications for my future practice. Just what is an Accountable Professional Practitioner? Perhaps it would be best to examine what accountability means within the healthcare setting. The NMC Code (2008) states that â€Å"you are personally accountable for actions and omissions in your practice and must always be able to justify your decisions.† Although this definition is useful it lacks a certain clarity of by what is meant by the term accountability as it gives a general overview without being specific, Savage and Moore (2004) go on to argue this that lack of clarity can lead to indistinctive views that confuse those working in the health care field and it is this lack of precision that can lead to nurses professional conduct being called into question (NMC 2002). Perhaps for the professional practitioner what is useful is to examine what makes you accountable rather than what is accountable, by this I mean how you become an accountable professional practioner, what are the prerequisites required for this. One could argue that perhaps this all begins with critical thinking and reflection, Brittner and Gravlin (2009) argue that critical thinking is essential in todays nursing practice and can assist in making essential choices about patient care and clinical emergencies (St.Cyr All 2009, Toofany 2008, Cirocco 2007). Being a recently qualified nurse this isnt always an easy task to do, because I often lack the skills and knowledge that would allow me to make complex decisions, this is not unusual though as St.Cyr All (2009) highlighted that newly qualified nurses can lack some critical thinking skills for patient care, a useful tool that I have discovered that can enable me to develop my critical thinking abilities are mind maps, as these can increase my knowledge and understanding of a situation by linking concepts, themes and ideas (Toofany 2008) and can assist me in discovering a deeper understanding of the issues and indentify learning needs and positive behaviours to aid my development (St.Cyr and All 2009). To this end I do use mind maps as a way of linking theory and knowledge to gain a better overview of the patient or the clinical situation, it highlights my gaps in knowledge or indeed raises my awareness of what I already know. To move this a stage further by then applying these critical thinking skills to reflection I can begin to critically reflect on my practice. By becoming a critical reflector I am aiding my self-awareness (Horton-Deutsch Sherwood 2008) and developing a deeper understanding of the issues relating to patient care, my own actions and the reasons I choose them (Cirocco 2007, Redmond 2004) challenging my own actions (Forneris Peden-McAlpine 2009) and highlighting any learning needs I may wish to follow up on to aid my development as an accountable practioner by linking theory into practice (Rolfe Gardner 2006, Rolfe et al 2001). The best example of this I can give to date was when I was involved in a clinical emergency with a patient just after a couple of months of qualification, who despite every attempt made died very suddenly, I was left with lots of confusion, anger and upset over the incident and more importantly with the question of could I have done more? Through a process of critical reflection both written then verbally with my mentor I realised that we could have done nothing more, that I acted in a very professional manner throughout the incident and afterwards with the support I offered the family and colleagues, but I needed to go through that process in order to make sense of the situation and highlight possible learning objectives for me including developing coping strategies that would enable me to cope with a sudden death. When a situation very similar occurred again a few months ago I was able to take a more active role and recover from it much quicker knowing I did all that I could to hel p the patient and supporting the family and some colleagues after the incident. Benner (1984) states that this type of actions are that of an advanced beginner working towards becoming a competent nurse whereby by being involved in similar experiences I was able to make sense of a meaningful situation. By beginning to recognise patterns of behaviours and events I am beginning to develop my expertise through increasing my experiential learning knowledge (Benner 1984, Rolfe et al 2001). It is by making meaningful sense of these experiences though a process of critical reflection that have aided and will continue to improve my decision-making skills and self-awareness (Horton-Deutsch Sherwood 2008, Avis Freshwater 2006). It also empowers me to continue to participate in continuing education maintaining and developing professional competences (Griffitts 2002) by identifying learning needs through gaps in my knowledge. In becoming an accountable professional practioner this process of reflection can be a quality standard whereby I take responsibility for my own performance and deliver best quality care (Johns 2004). This links into clinical governance whereby I have to ensure I am prepared to accept accountability and consequences for any decision-making judgements that comes with any new role development (Cronin Rawlings-Anderson 2004). Through the system of clinical governance I can monitor through self-evaluation and feedback the quality of care and service I offer to my patients, families and colleagues ensuring that it is both effective and safe (NHS QIS 2005, Pickering Thompson 2004). There is also the issue of autonomy and accountability. This for me has been to date the biggest struggle in becoming an accountable professional, autonomy can be demonstrated through patient care by using the processes of critical thinking, reflection and your existing knowledge base (Keys 2009) however this can become frustrating when you take on autonomous responsibility but are limited by circumstances and sometimes colleagues to utilise your training and experience (Laperriere 2008). As a mature student who came into nursing as a second career I find myself often perturbed by colleagues who often quote that I am a newly qualified member of staff and it will take time to develop skills especially around issues of patient and family communication without knowing my background. It has be shown that newly qualified mature nurses can use previous life experiences to aid in a problem solving approach (Stuttard 2008) and as many of the skills I have developed over the years are transfe rrable, I would argue that by having these transferrable skills I can offer a wider range of skills and flexibility to my nursing experiences (Shirey 2009) that can aid my self-awareness and autonomy (Postler-Slattery Foley 2003). One of my ways of coping with these frustrations is to develop resilience. By becoming resilient to the negativity or challenges I receive I am able to motivate myself, Roth et al (2007) show that motivation within an autonomous concept and the actual experience of autonomy are essential for self-development and well-being, by using this autonomous motivation I can use it to aid my self-awareness of critical thinking and reflection (Leipold Greve 2009). This is a view supported by Darbyshire Fleming (2007) who state that those who practise autonomy are encouraged to be critical thinkers and self-directed in their learning. Of course within the concept of autonomy comes the acceptance of being responsible and being aware of your own limitations, at all times autonomous practice must be practiced safely with the care of the patients at the forefront it is not a weakness to say I cannot do this or participate in a skill that I know very little about (Richards Edwards 2003) it instead highlights how much I value patient care and respect for those I work with . Autonomy means ownership (Lyon 1990) and by claiming ownership of my practice it could be argued I increase patient safety and increase the quality of care I give my patients (Weston 2008) as well as developing my critical thinking, knowledge and accountability (Atkins 2006). With the above in mind I find myself asking the question of what else can support me in developing into an accountable professional practitioner? Certainly the processes of reflection and critical thinking can help but what I personally find of great use is to utilise the support systems I have around me, I certainly acknowledge how fortunate I am with having the amount of support systems in place to support me compared with some of my fellow colleagues as a result of the Early Clinical Career Fellowship. Currently I have three main formal systems in place a mentor, clinical coach and participation in action learning sets, these systems although very different from each other all have one thing in common and that is to aid my development, in addition to these systems I also have the informal support of my peers and management. My mentor can assist me in adapting to my new environment and offer the support from their own experiences to enable my learning, they are motivated to support and encourage me (Wagner Seymour 2007) to develop and try out new skills with support until I am confident enough to undertake these on my own, in addition to this they provide me with feedback on my progress and can suggest alternatives ways of working, they act as my role model and teacher (Morton-Cooper Palmer 2000). They can also provide me with a safe place to take sensitive issues and challenge my views (May 2003) Participation in action learning sets allows me to be supported and challenged by a group of my peers, it allows me to critically reflect and explore issues to a deeper level to aid my understanding and development and apply any new knowledge I have learned to practice, it can increase my motivation to learn and encourage my critical thinking into linking theory into practice. (Haan Ridder 2006, Rayner et al 2002) In addition to the above I also have my clinical coach. This is a very experienced nurse who can support, mentor, guide and coach me. She provides a higher degree of challenging to my practice encouraging my critical thinking and reflective skills and as she is detached from my clinical area is able to offer observations and questioning of my actions from a neutral perspective (Titchen 2003, Wright Titchen 2003). This all encourages and challenges me into becoming an accountable professional practitioner. In conclusion this essay has raised several points about leads you to become accountable rather than what is accountable. It is a complex dynamic composing of not one element but several that all interconnect almost as if it were a jigsaw puzzle. No one element is more important that the other as they are all necessary to help me in my development as an accountable professional practitioner. As my knowledge, understanding and experiences as a nurse increases so too will my accountability, this in itself will provide new challenges as I prepare myself for these new responsibilities and self-development What is clear for me and has been highlighted as a result of undertaking the essay is how my practice of an accountable professional practitioner can be used as a quality standard of care and measuring tool to ensure that my practice is safe and effective for all of those I work with and as ORourke (2006) states that this standard of care can only be improved on based on my understandin g of roles, autonomy and accountability and that can only be understood once I develop my critical thinking, reflective skills and using my support systems that have been put in place for me. I believe that throughout my career as a nurse even as I work towards becoming an expert nurse (Benner 1984), I will always be working towards becoming an Accountable Professional Practitioner as I will always be critically reflective, learning new skills, developing my autonomous practice and requiring support so to that end I dont think I will ever be a fully accountable professional practitioner but I am accountable for the skills, knowledge and responsibility and level I am at. This brings a strange feeling of comfort rather than fear as I believe this will ensure nursing continues to evolve and develop and I will be there in the midst of it all.

The Sniper Essay -- English Literature Essays

The Sniper "The Sniper" places a strong emphasis on the evils of war, and yet paints a vivid image of mankind's qualities and their society. Employing the technique of describing one particular sniper to symbolise a general subject, readers are able to gain a deep insight into the evils of war. In this story, the assembly of setting, contrasting characters and themes of fanaticism and division of loyalties are vital to conveying the horror of war. On the other hand, "The Sniper" also discusses the power of war, depicting it as the decider of life and death for men. Its force is further emphasised when neighbours are turned into enemies under war's influence. The setting of the story, Dublin, has been written in such a way that only highly negative images are conveyed to portray evil. From the beginning to the end, Dublin is seen as an insecure, fearful, and vulnerable town abundant with weapons of war and associated horror.  ¡Ã‚ §Dublin lay enveloped in darkness ¡Ã‚ ¨ instantly transmits a sense of mystery, weariness and fear. This negative image is strengthened by  ¡Ã‚ §Around the beleaguered Four Courts the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city machine guns and rifles broke the silence of the night, spasmodically like dogs barking on lone farm. ¡Ã‚ ¨ Dublin can be almost compared to a person, who has struggled under stress and is now defeated. The city is empty, apart from the roar of  ¡Ã‚ §machine guns and rifles ¡Ã‚ ¨ which have converted the city not a place of misery and ba... The Sniper Essay -- English Literature Essays The Sniper "The Sniper" places a strong emphasis on the evils of war, and yet paints a vivid image of mankind's qualities and their society. Employing the technique of describing one particular sniper to symbolise a general subject, readers are able to gain a deep insight into the evils of war. In this story, the assembly of setting, contrasting characters and themes of fanaticism and division of loyalties are vital to conveying the horror of war. On the other hand, "The Sniper" also discusses the power of war, depicting it as the decider of life and death for men. Its force is further emphasised when neighbours are turned into enemies under war's influence. The setting of the story, Dublin, has been written in such a way that only highly negative images are conveyed to portray evil. From the beginning to the end, Dublin is seen as an insecure, fearful, and vulnerable town abundant with weapons of war and associated horror.  ¡Ã‚ §Dublin lay enveloped in darkness ¡Ã‚ ¨ instantly transmits a sense of mystery, weariness and fear. This negative image is strengthened by  ¡Ã‚ §Around the beleaguered Four Courts the heavy guns roared. Here and there through the city machine guns and rifles broke the silence of the night, spasmodically like dogs barking on lone farm. ¡Ã‚ ¨ Dublin can be almost compared to a person, who has struggled under stress and is now defeated. The city is empty, apart from the roar of  ¡Ã‚ §machine guns and rifles ¡Ã‚ ¨ which have converted the city not a place of misery and ba...

Terrorism and the Just War Tradition Essay -- September 11 Terrorism E

Terrorism and the Just War Tradition       It ´s important, at the outset, to understand what the just-war tradition is, and isn ´t. The just-war tradition is not an algebra that provides custom-made, clear-cut answers under all circumstances. Rather, it is a kind of ethical calculus, in which moral reasoning and rigorous empirical analysis are meant to work together, in order to provide guidance to public authorities on whom the responsibilities of decision-making fall. This essay will study the tradition and apply it to the Sept. 11 aftermath.    From its beginnings in St. Augustine, just-war thinking has been based on the presumption -- better, the classic moral judgment -- that rightly-constituted public authorities have the moral duty to pursue justice -- even at risk to themselves and those for whom they are responsible. That is why, for example, St. Thomas Aquinas discussed just war under the broader subject of the meaning of "charity," and why the eminent Protestant theologian Paul Ramsey argued that the just-war tradition is an attempt to think through the public meaning of the commandment of love-of-neighbor. In today ´s international context, "justice" includes the defense of freedom (especially religious freedom), and the defense of a minimum of order in international affairs. For these are the crucial components of the peace that is possible in a fallen world.    This presumption -- that the pursuit of justice is a moral obligation of statecraft -- shapes the first set of moral criteria in the just-war tradition, which scholars call the "ius ad bellum" or "war-decision law:" Is the cause a just one? Will the war be conducted by a responsible public authority? Is there a "right intention" (which, among ... ...tc.; no one suggests that guerrilla warfare is anything other than warfare. It is true that the just-war tradition is accustomed to thinking of states as the only "unit-of-count" in world politics. The new situation demands a development of the just-war tradition. As a method of moral reasoning about politics, the just-war tradition emerged long before the state system; the tradition developed to deal with the realities of a world in which states were the primary actors, and now it must develop to help us think through our moral obligations in a world in which non-state actors, like terrorist organizations and networks (often allied with states), are crucial, and intentionally lethal, actors.    SOURCES CITED:    CNN.com http://www.cnn.com/    In Response to Terrorism. http://www.powertochange.com/peace/articles/terror_response.html   

Body Image Essay -- Weight Health Body Image Essays

Body Image   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚     Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  "Just Be" is a familiar slogan to the current American culture. It is the slogan of a well-known designer, Calvin Klein, who, in his advertisements, supposedly promotes individuality and uniqueness. Yet, Calvin Klein, along with all known designers, does not have overweight or unattractive people on his billboard ads, on his runways, in his magazine pictures or on his television commercials. Moreover, the movie, music and the mass media corroborate with the fashion industry in setting and advertising a certain standards for a physical ideal of a human body. Such propaganda promotes the public into depriving themselves of needed nutrition and generates eating disorders within people in order to fit the set standard of the physical ideal. The negative attitude towards overweight population of the modern society is a sociocultural phenomenon. Yet, historically the negativity towards excess in weight was not constant. If one examines the artwork as relatively recent as the works of the Renaissance period, it can be witnessed that women who were somewhat "chunky," were considered beautiful and they were painted and sculpted. "Fleshy" men and women are in the masterpieces of such artist as Michelangelo, de Vinci, Rafael, Goya y Lucientes and etc. Love handles, fat deposits and skin folds were regarded as attractive and were applauded. Cleopatra, for example, was praised for her beauty, yet by modern standards she would be considered overweight. Aphrodite, the goddess of love and the image of perfection, is also viewed as overweight and thickset in the contemporary society and would not be painted or sculpted as "heavy set" as she has been created previously. Nonetheless, she was painted in accordance with the timely regar ds of beauty. Thus, it   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   2 may be observed that during that time frame, as well as during most of the historic periods, the full figured body was preached as normal and ideal and was, though not as intensely and as high-tech, commercialized to the public and society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The change in the beauty standard has been observed since 1970's, when beauty pageant contestants, actresses and models began to continuously show a decrease in weight. The analysis of the weight of advertised models, contestants and playboy centerfolds showed that over sixty perc... ...Archives of General Psychiatry. 56, 468. Field, Alison E., Cheung, Lilian, Wolf, Anne M., Herzog, David B., Goltmaker, Steven L., & Colditz, Graham A. (1999) "Exposure to the mass media and weight concerns among girls" Pediatrics. 103. Harrison, Kristen (1997) "Does interpersonal attraction to thin media personalities promote eating disorders?" Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media. 41. Henriques, Gregg R., Calhoun, Lawrence G. & Cann, Arnie. (1996) "Ethic differences in women's body satisfaction: an experimental investigation." The Journal of Social Psychology. 136, pp. 689-697. Lovejoy, Meg. (2001) " Disturbances in a social body: Differences in body image and eating problems among African American and White women." Gender & Society. 15, pp.239-261. MacDonald, Rhona. (2001) " To diet for" British Medical Journal. 322, pp. 1002. Mulholland, Amy, Mintz, Laurie B. (2001) " Prevalence of eating disorders among African American women." Journal of counseling Psychology. 48, pp.111-116. Stice, Eric (1998) "Modeling of eating pathology and social reinforcement of thin-ideal predict onset of bulimic symptoms." Behavior Research and Therapy. 36

Tropical Rainforests vs Tropical Grasslands

Discussion Based on the data at Tables 4c. 2 and 4c. 3, it is evident that the tropical rainforest has higher species richness than the tropical grassland ecosystem. However, when based in the indices on Diversity, Similarity and Dominance in the tropical grassland and tropical rainforest data, the Simpson Indices favor the data for the tropical rainforest as more diverse than the tropical grassland. The Simpson Indices, as defined in Cuevas et. al (2012), is based on dominance and as the number of dominant species in a community are few, the species has low diversity.The tropical rainforest ecosystem showed a higher index of dominance than the tropical rainforest resulting to the higher values it obtained in the Simpson Indices of Similarity and Evenness. This means that most of the dominant organisms present in the grassland are quite similar and the same due to the higher Simpson Indices on Equitability and Diversity while it is a different case for the forest. First, we need to i dentify the forest study site as a secondary or primary growth type. From the tables of species richness and number of species seen in an area, we can deduce that the forest study site is a secondary growth forest.Secondary growth forests are products of secondary succession. Secondary succession, as described in Campbell (1996), is the type of succession that occurs when the soil is intact and accommodates a considerable amount of nutrients that can support life. This succession is primarily dependent on the pioneer species (e. g mosses, weeds and etc. ) which tends the soil from its lifeless state. Since pioneer species are mostly small and more adaptable to the harsh environment, we can say that the organisms or individuals present in the forest study site are products of secondary succession.A primary growth tropical rainforest, in turn, has the following characteristics: a barren soil, presence of few organisms that can flourish at extreme conditions (pioneer organisms) and dev elopment of communities in a newly formed habitat (Ricklefs, 2008). However, the study site showing the higher species diversity based on Shannon index is the tropical rainforest study site. Comparing data presented at Table 4C. 4, the tropical rainforest showed that even in the degree of randomness of the species, the tropical rainforest showed a wider variety of species compared to the tropical grassland.The Shannon Indices are also dependent on the species richness or the number of species in a given area. (Begon et. al, 2006). Also, some species or individuals are specific in terms of their habitat. This species are sometimes common in a given habitat while rare in another type of habitat. For the common species in the grassland, Imperata cyndrica, Mimosa and Elepantopus are examples of species that are generally common due to their intercepted lengths or relative covers, as seen in Table 4C. 2, which yielded considerable values for it to be classified as common.Grassland indivi duals form in clusters and are difficult to recognize as individual species, which is why counting them as separate individuals is not practical and difficult. They are counted through the relative cover that their nodules occupy. These individuals may have the following factors that allowed them to develop in their present habitat: good interspecific competitor, highly adaptive to harsh environment and efficient distribution of nutrients and essential compounds to the plant itself. However, some species are rare in grasslands. Examples of the rare species in the grassland ecosystem are Desmodium, Sorghum, and Borreria.Based on the intercepted lengths and % cover of the species in Table 4C. 3, the species are rare due to low values it yielded on the parameters (i. e. intercepted lengths, relative cover and etc. ) and thus, regarding it as rare. This species or individuals may be rare due to low interspecific competition and are not yet adapted to their environment. They may also be dispersed randomly and landed on a grassland ecosystem that offers unfavorable conditions to the growth and development of such plants. Species that are quite common in the tropical rainforest are the Palosanto, Caryota cumingii and Cariota rumphiana.Even if the species or individuals are high in numbers compared to other plant species present in that area, we cannot conclude that these plants are the dominant individuals in the tropical rainforest. There may be certain reasons why these individuals are high in numbers. We should include factors such as reproduction rates or processes since these individuals have different ways of propagating their seeds and also the nutrient availability of the given area in the study site that the individuals really thrive for specific nourishment the place or area provides.Also, the forest has a larger area for growth and development of species and a larger area would signify that it could accommodate more species than the grassland ecosystem. Th e diversity of individuals in an ecosystem is affected by many factors including the area, nutrient availability and presence of biotic interactions such as competition, mutualism and etc. that would allow species or individuals to grow and develop for a higher diversity in an ecosystem. Begon et. Al, 2006) Conclusion Based on the data gathered and computed, we can say that even if the tropical rainforest species or individuals showed lesser dominance on one another, they exhibited a wider variety of species than the tropical grassland organisms. In the computation for the Shannon’s Indices of Diversity and Evenness, the tropical rainforest is a better candidate for a more diverse and even distribution of species compared to the tropical grassland.The same goes for the Simpson Indices of Dominance, Diversity and Evenness of the tropical rainforest that was more favorable than the tropical grassland. However, presence of viable resources, the area of the ecosystem and specific biotic interactions, such as competition in clumped-distributed plants, greatly affects the diversity of plants since plants tend to disperse and develop in places or areas that have lesser competition and high amount of viable nutrients.Since the tropical rainforest showed most of the characteristics needed for a plant individual to diversify, we can conclude that the tropical rainforest is more diverse and exhibits higher species richness than the tropical grassland ecosystem. However, It is strongly recommended that the increase of transect size or area for research study regarding the diversity and richness of species to validate the errors in this exercise. Introduction A community, as defined in the Dictionary of Ecology (1962), is a group of one or more populations of organisms in a common spatial arrangement or area. Tropical Rainforests vs Tropical Grasslands Discussion Based on the data at Tables 4c. 2 and 4c. 3, it is evident that the tropical rainforest has higher species richness than the tropical grassland ecosystem. However, when based in the indices on Diversity, Similarity and Dominance in the tropical grassland and tropical rainforest data, the Simpson Indices favor the data for the tropical rainforest as more diverse than the tropical grassland. The Simpson Indices, as defined in Cuevas et. al (2012), is based on dominance and as the number of dominant species in a community are few, the species has low diversity.The tropical rainforest ecosystem showed a higher index of dominance than the tropical rainforest resulting to the higher values it obtained in the Simpson Indices of Similarity and Evenness. This means that most of the dominant organisms present in the grassland are quite similar and the same due to the higher Simpson Indices on Equitability and Diversity while it is a different case for the forest. First, we need to i dentify the forest study site as a secondary or primary growth type. From the tables of species richness and number of species seen in an area, we can deduce that the forest study site is a secondary growth forest.Secondary growth forests are products of secondary succession. Secondary succession, as described in Campbell (1996), is the type of succession that occurs when the soil is intact and accommodates a considerable amount of nutrients that can support life. This succession is primarily dependent on the pioneer species (e. g mosses, weeds and etc. ) which tends the soil from its lifeless state. Since pioneer species are mostly small and more adaptable to the harsh environment, we can say that the organisms or individuals present in the forest study site are products of secondary succession.A primary growth tropical rainforest, in turn, has the following characteristics: a barren soil, presence of few organisms that can flourish at extreme conditions (pioneer organisms) and dev elopment of communities in a newly formed habitat (Ricklefs, 2008). However, the study site showing the higher species diversity based on Shannon index is the tropical rainforest study site. Comparing data presented at Table 4C. 4, the tropical rainforest showed that even in the degree of randomness of the species, the tropical rainforest showed a wider variety of species compared to the tropical grassland.The Shannon Indices are also dependent on the species richness or the number of species in a given area. (Begon et. al, 2006). Also, some species or individuals are specific in terms of their habitat. This species are sometimes common in a given habitat while rare in another type of habitat. For the common species in the grassland, Imperata cyndrica, Mimosa and Elepantopus are examples of species that are generally common due to their intercepted lengths or relative covers, as seen in Table 4C. 2, which yielded considerable values for it to be classified as common.Grassland indivi duals form in clusters and are difficult to recognize as individual species, which is why counting them as separate individuals is not practical and difficult. They are counted through the relative cover that their nodules occupy. These individuals may have the following factors that allowed them to develop in their present habitat: good interspecific competitor, highly adaptive to harsh environment and efficient distribution of nutrients and essential compounds to the plant itself. However, some species are rare in grasslands. Examples of the rare species in the grassland ecosystem are Desmodium, Sorghum, and Borreria.Based on the intercepted lengths and % cover of the species in Table 4C. 3, the species are rare due to low values it yielded on the parameters (i. e. intercepted lengths, relative cover and etc. ) and thus, regarding it as rare. This species or individuals may be rare due to low interspecific competition and are not yet adapted to their environment. They may also be dispersed randomly and landed on a grassland ecosystem that offers unfavorable conditions to the growth and development of such plants. Species that are quite common in the tropical rainforest are the Palosanto, Caryota cumingii and Cariota rumphiana.Even if the species or individuals are high in numbers compared to other plant species present in that area, we cannot conclude that these plants are the dominant individuals in the tropical rainforest. There may be certain reasons why these individuals are high in numbers. We should include factors such as reproduction rates or processes since these individuals have different ways of propagating their seeds and also the nutrient availability of the given area in the study site that the individuals really thrive for specific nourishment the place or area provides.Also, the forest has a larger area for growth and development of species and a larger area would signify that it could accommodate more species than the grassland ecosystem. Th e diversity of individuals in an ecosystem is affected by many factors including the area, nutrient availability and presence of biotic interactions such as competition, mutualism and etc. that would allow species or individuals to grow and develop for a higher diversity in an ecosystem. Begon et. Al, 2006) Conclusion Based on the data gathered and computed, we can say that even if the tropical rainforest species or individuals showed lesser dominance on one another, they exhibited a wider variety of species than the tropical grassland organisms. In the computation for the Shannon’s Indices of Diversity and Evenness, the tropical rainforest is a better candidate for a more diverse and even distribution of species compared to the tropical grassland.The same goes for the Simpson Indices of Dominance, Diversity and Evenness of the tropical rainforest that was more favorable than the tropical grassland. However, presence of viable resources, the area of the ecosystem and specific biotic interactions, such as competition in clumped-distributed plants, greatly affects the diversity of plants since plants tend to disperse and develop in places or areas that have lesser competition and high amount of viable nutrients.Since the tropical rainforest showed most of the characteristics needed for a plant individual to diversify, we can conclude that the tropical rainforest is more diverse and exhibits higher species richness than the tropical grassland ecosystem. However, It is strongly recommended that the increase of transect size or area for research study regarding the diversity and richness of species to validate the errors in this exercise. Introduction A community, as defined in the Dictionary of Ecology (1962), is a group of one or more populations of organisms in a common spatial arrangement or area.

How far were the forces opposed to civil rights responsible for the failures of the civil rights movement in the 1960s?

Historians argue how far the forces opposed to the civil rights were responsible for the failures of the civil rights movement in the 1960s. The CRM was a social movement attacking racial and social discrimination against Black Americans in the southern and northern states. By 1960 the southern states was desegregated. The problems faced in the south were different to those of the north. The southern states suffered from legal inequality â€Å"separate but equal† whereas the North suffered from social inequality, unemployment and sanitation/ ghettoisation making it hard to find a blame for the situation, as the discrimination was not obvious.This caused an outburst of radical civil rights groups to emerge such as Black power and the Black panthers. Some argue that it was the forces that opposed the movement such as the local police/ white backlash that caused the failures as it was noticeable like the police being unfair. Others argue that it was the civil rights groups themse lves that led to the failures of the movement in the 1960s. Some argue that it was the government that led the movement to fail.By 1960 the movement had achieved so much in the south; desegregation in all public places and the Voting Rights Act had been passed, 1962. The movement could not go further as so much had been achieved with the help of the government. For the movement to request for more would have been pushing the boundaries. The problems in the north were intangleable and deeply rooted; only the government could have solved it by pumping money into the economy. The government resisted regardless that â€Å"1 in 10 Americans had an income under $5000 a year for blacks this was 1 in 3† .This led to the failures of the movement as the government didn’t fund the movement allowing it to not progress. On the other hand, it could be said the failures of the movement was down to the state government not the federal government due to the white resistance that they a llowed. â€Å"Four well dressed students sat in â€Å"white only† area in Woolworths refusing to leave unit served, 2nd day 23 students, 4th day 400 students†.Although they were not acting in a violent manor and were protesting peacefully the â€Å"police frequently arrested the protesters  for breaking the law but ignored the white people who attacked them†. This supports the idea of the local police allowing the movement to fail because they treated the campaigners unfairly, arresting them while protesting peacefully. The Vietnam War is another factor that led to the failures of the CRM. Johnson planned a ‘great society scheme’ to speed up desegregation schools education act 1965. â€Å"However the escalation of the Vietnam War made this impossible†. USA became increasingly involved in Vietnam taking Johnson’s concentration of the CRM.This led to the failure of the campaign because the movement was only successful when king was wor king with Johnson. However Johnson now had more important issues to deal with; king made matters worse when he spoke out against the war. At the start he was reluctant to do so, but felt compelled as it went against what he believed in. In 1967 King found it ironic that â€Å"when it came to the recruitment paper and firing line black soldiers were suddenly equal â€Å". This contributed to the failures of the movement as it lost the support of the federal government.In addition the war took time and money that was meant to help improve the northern states; â€Å"0. 5 million was spent on killing a Vietnamese solider but only $35 was to help each poor person† . This meant that there was no money for the FG to fund the CRM as it was being spent on the war; resulting in the CRG to protest against the war as they didn’t see the need of supporting it when the government wasn’t supporting them. This led Johnson to oppose the movement because they were protesting ag ainst decisions that he had made. In 1961 the freedom ride took place.It involved, CRA taking the bus from New Orleans from Washington DC to test the integrated state law they were â€Å"attacked by white mobs who included members of the KKK, the young riders were stoned and beaten with clubs, bicycle chains and baseball bats† . This highlights the evidence of opposed forces causing CRM to fail as the white public brutality attacked them. In 1963 the Birmingham campaign took place bull Connor police chief â€Å"set dogs and fire hoses on the demonstrators, 1300 children were arrested in two days. The lack of strong leadership was also led to the failures of the movement.MLK was not successful with his campaigns in the north as he was with the south. He was from the south and educated therefore the people of the north could not see him as a leader to represent their voice and opinions as he hadn’t experienced what they had. â€Å"people would say white rioting ‘ MLK would be ashamed of you’ and they would reply MLK who? † this led to the failure of the movement as MLK was not looked up to as a leader his existence in the north was not important allowing the movement to fail as there was no clear leadership due to lack of support.MLK had lack of authority such as Los angles because of his tactics. MLK believed in ‘non-violence’ due to his Christian background whereas the majority of the north wanted to use violence. This led the movement to fail as there was disagreement with the way things should be done. Kings expectations of solving the problems in the north were ambitious this was highlighted in the outcome of Chicago freedom movement rally in 1966; â€Å"only 30 000 people attended rather than the 10,000 king had expected† .This showed the broken unity of the CRM movement as for it to have been a success the cites needed to get together like they did in the south. Malcolm X, another leader that strongly influences the movement was completely against kings ideologies. He was from the north, uneducated and had been to prison unlike king and therefore represented most of the black men in the north. He was against integration and argued that it would create a new form of slavery. â€Å"He described that the march of Washington was nothing but a circus with clowns and all organised by a bunch of uncle toms.†This led the movement to fail as there was no unity and support between the leaders. X believed that MLK strategies of ‘non-violence’ re-emphasised the stereotype of the weak and the defeat less black person. This led to the movement failing as there was a clash of belief and ideas in the way the CRM should go about solving the problems in the north. Others argue that it was the emergence of the radical groups such as Black power and the Black panthers that hindered the movement through their actions. The black power was a radical group and became known in 1966 th ey believed in self defence.For some black power meant no integration and for others it mean and advancement in society for black people. The black panthers was founded 1966, it was an all black group and its aim was a revolutionary transformation of America. They used X as their role model. They wanted to improve the conditions of the northern ghetto and black liberation. They came up with a camping called ‘patrol the pigs’ â€Å"to keep the police under surveillance and protect the African Americans from the abuse of the police power†. While officers would be arresting There were other factors that generally led to the CRM to fail.The groups were becoming radical and the violent -ness scared the American public. This caused the movement to fail as they didn’t want to support their violent movement and for the movement to have been a success the groups needed the support of the white Americans to a large extent. The explosion of â€Å"violence out in 196 5-1968 of long hot summers of rioting† due to a black man being arrested for drunk driving and then brutality attacked by the police resulted in this rampaged through the streets.By 1965 there was $40 worth damage by 1967 the total damage was $714.8million this led the movement failing greatly as it made the government oppose them largely as they can caused harm and damaged to the environment that the government now had to pay for. virtuous Overall the forces opposed to the civil rights movement were only responsible for the failures for the movement to a small extent in the 1960s. Some historians argue that if there wasn’t a white resistant there would have been no movement therefore the reluctance of the police and the federal government was needed to a certain extent to be able to highlight the problems suffered by the north.The failure of the civil rights movement was caused by the Civil rights movement groups themselves. They lacked strong leadership as MLK was not eh right leader to lead the northern states to freedom and Malcolm X was assonated. Furthermore they had a lot of disagreements within themselves and lost American support from due to their violent reactions, summer riots and the removal of the whites from the groups causing them to lose funding that they needed. Therefore the failure of the movement was caused by the violent radical movement that the groups had created themselves.